Forest ecosystem services at landscape level – Why forest transition matters?

The study examines how forest landscape transformation affects forest ecosystem services (FES) in Ecuador and the Philippines, using data from 331 plots across 24 landscapes. The results show that ecosystem services vary by country and forest type, with carbon storage, non-timber forest products, biodiversity, and timber volume declining in natural forests as logging increases and landscapes shift toward agricultural–forest mosaics. Tree-based secondary land-use systems, such as agroforestry, can partially compensate for losses in some services, particularly timber production, but may also increase nutrient depletion. Overall, the study highlights the importance of maintaining connected forest landscapes and structurally diverse forests and recommends context-specific conservation and restoration strategies to sustain multiple ecosystem services.